prefix | Prefix Range module for PostgreSQL

This problem should be solved easily using a trie.

The trie node should basically keep a track of 2 things:

1. Child nodes
2. Count of prefixes ending at current node

Insert all strings in the trie, which will be done in O(string length * number of strings). After that, simply traversing the trie, you can hash the prefixes based on the count as per your use case. For suffixes, you can use the same approach, just start traversing the strings in reverse order.

Edit:
On second thought, trie might be the most efficient way, but a simple hashmap implementation should also work here. Here's an example to generate all prefixes with count > 1.

This package requires go v1.16, please upgrade your go version or use the appropriate docker builder.

gulp-imagemin 8.0.0 and above are now ESM only. You can downgrade gulp-imagemin to 7.1.0 which is commonjs and it should work fine.

This package is now pure ESM. Please read this.

https://github.com/sindresorhus/gulp-imagemin/releases/tag/v8.0.0

This problem has a fun O(n) solution.

If you draw a graph of cumulative sum vs index, then:

The average value in the subarray between any two indexes is the slope of the line between those points on the graph.

The first highest-average-prefix will end at the point that makes the highest angle from 0. The next highest-average-prefix must then have a smaller average, and it will end at the point that makes the highest angle from the first ending. Continuing to the end of the array, we find that...

These segments of highest average are exactly the segments in the upper convex hull of the cumulative sum graph.

Find these segments using the monotone chain algorithm. Since the points are already sorted, it takes O(n) time.

Traditional (single-byte) prefixes are different from opcode bytes like you said, so a state machine can just remember which prefixes it's seen until it gets to an opcode byte.

The 0f escape byte for 2-byte opcodes is not really a prefix. It has to be contiguous with the 2nd opcode byte. Thus, following a 0f, any byte is an opcode, even if it's something like f2 that would otherwise be a prefix. (This also applies following 0f 3a or 0f 38 2-byte escapes for SSSE3 and later, or VEX/EVEX prefixes that encode one of those escape sequences).

If you look at an opcode map, there are no entries that are ambiguous between single-byte prefix and opcode. (e.g. http://ref.x86asm.net/coder64.html, and notice how the 2-byte 0F .. opcodes are listed separately).

The decoders do have to know the current mode for this (and other things); for example x86-64 removed the 1-byte inc/dec reg opcodes for use as REX prefixes. (x86 32 bit opcodes that differ in x86-x64 or entirely removed). We can even use this difference to write polyglot machine code that runs differently when decoded in 32-bit vs. 64-bit mode, or even distinguish all 3 mode sizes.

x86 machine code is a byte stream that's not self-synchronizing (e.g. a ModRM or an immediate can be any byte). The CPU always knows where to start decoding from, either a jump target or the byte after the end of a previous instruction. That's the start of the instruction (including prefixes).

Bytes in memory are just bytes, only becoming instructions when they're decoded by the CPU. (Although in normal programs, simply disassembling from the top of the .text section does give you the program's instructions. Self-modifying and obfuscated code are not normal.)

Multi-byte VEX and EVEX prefixes aren't that simple in 32-bit mode. For example VEX prefixes overlap with invalid encodings of LES and LDS in modes other than 64-bit. (The c4 and c5 opcodes for LES and LDS are always invalid in 64-bit mode, except as VEX prefixes.) https://wiki.osdev.org/X86-64_Instruction_Encoding#VEX.2FXOP_opcodes

In legacy / compat modes, there weren't any free bytes left that weren't already opcodes or prefixes when AVX (VEX prefixes) and AVX-512 (EVEX prefix), so the only room for extensions was as encodings for opcodes that are only valid with a limited set of ModRM bytes. (e.g. LES / LDS require a memory source, not register - this is why some bits are inverted in VEX prefixes, so the top 2 bits of the byte after c4 or c5 will always be 1 in 32-bit mode instead of 0. That's the "mode" field in ModRM, and 11 means register).

(Fun fact: VEX prefixes are not recognized in 16-bit real mode, apparently because some software used the same invalid encodings of LES / LDS as intentional traps, to be sorted out in the #UD exception handler. VEX prefixes are recognized in 16-bit protected mode, though.)

AMD64 freed up several bytes by removing instructions like AAM, as well as LES/LDS (and the one-byte inc/dec reg encodings for use as REX prefixes), but CPU vendors have continued to care about 32-bit mode and not added any extensions that are only available in 64-bit mode which could simply take advantage of those free opcode bytes. This means finding ways to cram new instruction encodings into increasingly small gaps in 32-bit machine code. (Often via mandatory prefixes, e.g. rep bsr = lzcnt on CPUs with that feature, which gives different results.)

So the decoders in modern CPUs that support AVX / BMI1/2 have to look at multiple bytes to decide whether this is a prefix for a valid AVX or other VEX-encoded instruction, or in 32-bit mode if it should decode as LES or LDS. (And I guess look at the rest of the instruction to decide if it should #UD).

But modern CPUs are looking at 16 or 32 bytes at a time anyway to find instruction boundaries in parallel. (And then later feed those groups of instruction bytes to actual decoders, again in parallel.) https://www.realworldtech.com/sandy-bridge/4/

Same goes for the prefix scheme used by AMD XOP, which is a lot like VEX.

Agner Fog's blog article Stop the instruction set war from 2009 (soon after AVX was announced, before the first hardware supporting it) has a table of remaining unused coding space for future extensions, and some notes about it being "assigned" to AMD, Intel, or Via.

• How to tell the length of an x86 instruction? (including my answer) has some more details about x86 machine code.
• https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/questions/133486/find-an-illegal-string/133622#133622 (on codegolf.SE - the shortest sequence of bytes that will definitely #UD fault if it's not jumped over. It has to be long enough that it can't be consumed by the CPU as the immediate for a mov r64, imm64 for example.)
• Why does x/i on gdb give different results then disassemble? - an example of starting decode in the wrong place and decoding the middle of another instruction as something else.

(This is not really related to prefixes, but in general seeing how the rules apply to weird cases can help understand exactly things work.)

A software disassembler does need to know a start point. This can be problematic if obfuscated code mixes code and data, and actual execution jumps to places you wouldn't get if you just assume that you can decode in order without following jumps.

Fortunately compiler-generated code doesn't do that so naive static disassembly (e.g. by objdump -d or ndisasm, as opposed to IDA) finds the same instruction boundaries that actually running the program will.

This is not a problem for running obfuscated machine code; the CPU just does what it's told, and never cares about bytes before the place you tell it to jump to. Disassembling without running / single-stepping the program is the hard thing, especially with the possibility of self-modifying code and jumps to what a naive disassembler would think was the middle of an earlier instruction.

Obfuscated machine code can even have an instruction decode one way, then jump back into what was the middle of that instruction, for a later byte to be the opcode (or prefix + opcode). Modern CPUs with uop caches or that mark instruction boundaries in I-cache run slow (but correctly) if you do this, so it's more of a fun code-golf trick (extreme code-size optimization at the expense of speed) or obfuscation technique.

For an example of this, see my codegolf.SE x86 machine code answer to Golf a Custom Fibonacci Sequence. I'll excerpt the disassembly that lines up with what the CPU sees after looping back to cfib.loop, but note that the first iteration decodes differently. So I'm using just 1 byte outside the loop instead of 2 to effectively jump into the middle for the start of the first iteration. See the linked answer for a full description and the other disassembly.

Terraform AWS Provider is upgraded to version 4.0.0 which is published on 10 February 2022.

Major changes in the release include:

• Version 4.0.0 of the AWS Provider introduces significant changes to the aws_s3_bucket resource.
• Version 4.0.0 of the AWS Provider will be the last major version to support EC2-Classic resources as AWS plans to fully retire EC2-Classic Networking. See the AWS News Blog for additional details.
• Version 4.0.0 and 4.x.x versions of the AWS Provider will be the last versions compatible with Terraform 0.12-0.15.

The reason for this change by Terraform is as follows: To help distribute the management of S3 bucket settings via independent resources, various arguments and attributes in the aws_s3_bucket resource have become read-only. Configurations dependent on these arguments should be updated to use the corresponding aws_s3_bucket_* resource. Once updated, new aws_s3_bucket_* resources should be imported into Terraform state.

So, I updated my code accordingly by following the guide here: Terraform AWS Provider Version 4 Upgrade Guide | S3 Bucket Refactor

The new working code looks like this:

Just remove the "extractCss": true from your production environment, it will resolve the problem.

The reason about it is extractCss is deprecated, and it's value is true by default. See more here: Extracting CSS into JS with Angular 11 (deprecated extractCss)

You could have users select a file in the rendered document by embedding a Shiny application. The caveat is that all expressions involving dependencies of the user's selection have to be wrapped inside of reactive(). That is obviously not optimal if you are trying to teach R, but in case it helps or inspires a better answer, here is an example:

It compiles, when you'll add jaxb-runtime dependency, as below: